STRUCTURE OF TANTALUM ISOTOPES
By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) ( September 2014) Historically the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of the well-established electromagnetic laws, in favour of various contradicting nuclear theories, which could not lead to the nuclear structure. Under this physics crisis and using the charged UP and DOWN quarks , discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig, I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ”(2003), which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons The paper was also presented at a nuclear conference held at NCSR "Demokritos" (2002). In this photo I present the electromagnetic laws governing the nuclear structure, but a student of Einstein (Dr Th. Kalogeropoulos ) criticised my discovery of nuclear force and structure by believing that the nuclear structure is due to the invalid relativity. In fact, here one can see the 9 charged quarks in proton and the 12 ones in neutron able to give the charge distributions in nucleons for revealing the strong electromagnetic force for the nuclear binding in the correct nuclear structure by applying the laws of electromagnetism. You can see my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS . Note that according to my discovery of the LAW OF ENERGY AND MASS the mass defect in the nuclear structure is due to the photon mass of the emitting dipolic photon presented at the international conference "Frontiers of fundamental physics" (1993) organised by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri , who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus. Nevertheless today many physicist continue to apply not the well-established laws but the various fallacious nuclear structure models which lead to complications. Natural tantalum (Ta) consists of two stable isotopes: Ta-181 (99.988%) and Ta-180m (0.012%). The latter nuclide Ta-180m (m denotes a metastable state) has sufficient energy to decay in three ways: isomeric transition to the ground state of Ta-180, beta decay to W-180, and electron capture to Hf-180. However, no radioactivity from any decay mode of this nuclear isomer has ever been observed. Only a lower limit on its half-life of over 1015 years has been set, by observation. The very slow decay of Ta-180m is attributed to its high spin (9 units) and the low spin of lower-lying states. Gamma or beta decay would require many units of angular momentum to be removed in a single step, so that the process would be very slow. The very unusual nature of Ta-180m is underscored by the fact that the ground state of this nuclear isomer, Ta-180, has a half-life of only 8 hours. Ta-180m is the only naturally occurring nuclear isomer (excluding radiogenic and cosmogenic short-living nuclides). It is also the rarest primordial nuclide in the Universe observed for any element that has any stable isotopes. There are also 35 known artificial radioisotopes, the longest-lived of which are Ta-179 with a half-life of 1.82 years, Ta-182 with a half-life of 114.43 days, Ta-183 with a half-life of 5.1 days, and Ta-177 with a half-life of 56.56 hours. All other isotopes have half-lives under a day, most under an hour. There are also numerous isomers, the most stable of which (other than Ta-180m) is Ta-178m1 with a half-life of 2.36 hours. The core of tantalum, the Ta-146, with 73 protons and 73 neutrons (odd number) breaks the high symmetry giving only two stable isotopes. In general the additional p73n73 is a vertical system with S =0. Under such a condition the structure of Ta-146 has S =0 with six horizontal planes of opposite spins . Moreover the two horizontal squares like the down square (-HSQ) and up square (+HSQ) exist under and over the structure of the six planes. They give also S = 0 because the two deuterons of -HSQ have S = -2 and the two deuterons of the +HSQ have S = +2. Of course several protons of such a core form blank positions able to receive 35 extra neutrons with two bonds per neutron for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions in the stable Ta-181. However for constructing this stable structure of symmetrical arrangements in several nuclides as in the following group (including the stable Ta-181 with S = +7/2), the Ta-146 (core) changes the spin from S = 0 to S = +1, because the additional p73n73 as a deuteron of S = +1 makes horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the +HSQ . Also one deuteron of -HSQ with S = -1 changes the spin from S -1 to S = +1 giving S = +2 . Particularly it goes to +HSQ for making horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the up horizontal square. In other words the Ta-146 in this case as a core has S = +3. Under this condition the stable Ta-181 with S = +7/2 of 35 extra neutrons ( based on the Ta-146 with S = +3) has 18 extra neutrons of positive spins and 17 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is ' '''S = +3 + 18(+1/2) + 17(-1/2) = +7/2 ' 'On the other hand in the heavier unstable nuclides the more extra neutrons than those of the stable nuclide (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. ' ' ' '''STRUCTURE OF Ta-162, Ta-164, Ta-166, Ta-170, Ta-172, Ta-174, Ta-175, Ta-177, Ta-179, Ta-181, Ta-183, Ta-185, Ta-187 AND Ta-189 The structure of the above unstable nuclides including the stable Ta-181 is based also on the same structure of the Ta-146 (core) having S = +3 . For example the unstable Ta-179 with S = +7/2 of 33 extra neutrons has 17 extra neutrons of positive spins and 16 extra neutrons of negative spins . That is S = +3 + 17(+1/2) + 16(-1/2) = +7/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron but their small number cannot give sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structure of the Ta-181 with S = +7/2 the greater number of extra neutrons gives sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Whereas in the heavier unstable Ta-183 with S = +7/2 the two more extra neutrons than those of the stable Ta-181 (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. In the same way the more extra neutrons than those of the stable Ta-181 of the unstable Ta-185, Ta-187, and Ta,189 make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. STRUCTURE OF Ta-155, Ta-165, Ta-171, Ta-173, Ta-180m, Ta-182, AND Ta-184 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides including the stable Ta-180m are based on another structure of Ta-146 (core) having S = -5. In this case the additional p73n73 as a deuteron of S = -1 makes horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down horizontal square (-HSQ). Also two deuterons of the up horizontal square change their spins from S = +2 to S = -2 giving S = -4. Particularly they go to -HSQ for making horizontal bonds with the two deuterons of the down square (-HSQ). In other words, the Ta-146 as a core under such extra neutrons has a spin S = -5. Under this condition the unstable Ta-173 with S = -5/2 of 27 extra neutrons has 16 extra neutrons of positive spins and 11 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -5 + 16(+1/2) + 11(-1/2) = -5/2 These extra neutrons fill the blank positions and make two bonds per neutron but their small number cannot give sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the pp and nn repulsions. However in the stable structure of the Ta-180m with S = -9 the greater number of extra neutrons gives sufficient binding energies to pn bonds for overcoming the repulsions. Note that the Ta-180m of 34 extra neutrons has 13 extra neutrons of positive spins and 21 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -5 + 13(+1/2) + 21(-1/2) = -9 Whereas in the heavier unstable Ta-184 with S = -5 of 38 extra neutrons with opposite spins the 4 more extra neutrons than those of the stable Ta-180m (in the absence of blank positions) make single bonds leading to the beta minus decay. STRUCTURE OF Hf-156, Hf-158, Hf-160, Hf-168, Hf-176, AND Hf-186 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of the above unstable nuclides with even number of extra neutrons are based on another structure of Ta-146 (core) having S = -2. In this case one deuteron of the up square (+HSQ) with S = +1 changes the spin from S =+1 to S =-1 giving S = -2. Particularly it goes to the down horizontal square (-HSQ) in order to make horizontal bonds with a deuteron of the down square. Under this condition the unstable Hf-156 with S = -2 has 10 extra neutrons of opposite spins, while the unstable Hf-176 with S = -1 of 30 extra neutrons has 16 extra neutrons of positive spins and 14 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = -2 + 16(+1/2) + 14(-1/2) = -1 STRUCTURE OF Hf-157, Hf-159, Hf-161, Hf-163, Hf-167, Hf-169. AND Hf-178 After a careful analysis I found that the structures of this group are based on the structure of Ta-146 (core) with S = 0. In this case the extra p73n73 as a vertical system with S =0 contributes to the total spin of the core having S =0. Under this condition the unstableTa-157 with S =+1/2 of 11 extra neutrons has 6 extra neutrons of positive spins and 5 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 + 6(+1/2) + 5(-1/2) = +1/2 Whereas the unstable Ta-178 with S = +1 of 32 extra neutrons has 17 extra neutrons of positive spins and 15 extra neutrons of negative spins. That is S = 0 +17(+1/2) + 15(-1/2) = +1 Category:Fundamental physics concepts